Dyslexia and Music
Introduction
The Mayo Clinic (2019) states that dyslexia is “a learning disorder that involves difficulty reading due to problems identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and words (decoding). Also called reading disability, dyslexia affects areas of the brain that process language.” Dyslexic individuals have trouble with reading, despite normal intelligence and vision. Due to this reading disability, dyslexics require extra training to improve their reading and spelling skills, attention issues, and their sensory perceptions.
Vast amounts of research has shown that music training has a tremendous impact on the development of the brain (Tierney & Kraus, 2013). Lifelong musicians display differences in brain structure when compared to nonmusicians, such as white matter organization and thicker gray matter in motor and auditory cortices. Music training has also been shown to improve the language abilities that underlie reading skills in normal reading individuals (Tierney & Kraus, 2013). Although the limits of music training are not fully understood, many researchers have investigated whether such music training could also help those with dyslexia and learning disabilities.
Such a learning disability has a great impact on the mental health of those diagnosed, because it affects their self-esteem, confidence, physical maturity and ability to socialize (LD Online, 2019). As dyslexia affects 5-15% of the American population, this topic is of great importance to those in the mental health field (LD Online, 2019). If early interventions are applied, those afflicted will have a greater opportunity to read and write well, and therefore have a higher chance of combating these symptoms (LD Online, 2019).
Auditory Temporal Processing and Phonological Awareness
According to research, dyslexics show impairments in auditory temporal processing, which is the rate at which a person processes auditory information (Overy, 2003). Processing auditory sounds at a rapid rate allows one to develop phonological perception, which consequently leads to language development (Overy, 2003). When the time period is too long for an individual to process sound, communication is distorted and it is difficult for them to comprehend speech.
Phonological awareness is key in literacy development, as it is the skill to recognize sounds in language. Bishop-Liebler, Welch, Huss, Thomson, and Goswami (2014) stated that phonological processing (phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid naming of familiar items) is the root cognitive problem for those with developmental dyslexia. Beyond single word processing, these phonological problems also relate to the processing of syllable stress, intonation, and speech prosody (Bishop-Liebler et al., 2014). In fact, non-speech auditory processing, such as sensitivity to pitch, amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, amplitude envelope rise time, and duration has been linked to impaired phonological processing. In their study comparing adult non-dyslexic university musicians and adult dyslexic musicians, Bishop et al. (2014) found that music training can be an effective strategy for helping develop dyslexic individuals’ auditory temporal processing skills, because rhythm and auditory sensitivity are a foundational component of music. Their research suggests that music training begun in childhood can improve auditory processing skills in those with dyslexia, thus helping to counteract language difficulties in these individuals (Bishop-Liebler et al., 2014).
In the first randomized control study on the relationship between music training and dyslexic children, Flaugnacco et al. (2015) found that music training, more than painting classes, helped improve phonological perception by improving temporal processing rates. The study found that those given music training outperformed in tasks assessing phonological awareness, rhythmic abilities, and reading skills (Flaugnacco et al., 2015). There was a 50% improvement in the text reading assessment amongst the very poor performers in the music group. The music group also performed better in the phonemic blending task. Additionally, there was an improvement in pseudo-word reading in the music group, which is a difficult skill to train, as this skill remains unimproved in many adults with dyslexia (Flaugnacco et al., 2015). However, there were no differences between the groups with regard to reading speed.
In another series of studies on dyslexic and nondyslexic children, Forgeard et al. (2008) found that musical discrimination predicted phonological and reading skills in nondyslexic children. However, amongst dyslexic children, musical discrimination only impacted phonological skills, and not reading skills. Phonological skills are an integral component of reading ability, so it is unclear if further development of these skills could improve reading skills over time (Forgeard et al., 2008). The study’s results also indicated that dyslexic children struggle with processing pitch and rhythm, as they scored below average consistently on two separate assessments. This is an interesting finding, as other studies have shown that dyslexic musicians score similar to or higher than nondyslexic musicians in assessments for pitch (Overy, 2003; Weiss, Granot & Ahissar, 2014). With regards to melodic discrimination, dyslexic children were outperformed by the other groups. The study concluded that dyslexic children may have a broader musical deficiency than has been indicated by research thus far, as many studies have displayed that dyslexic children mostly struggle with rhythmic timing (Forgeard et al., 2008).
Rhythm and Timing
Rhythm and timing are perhaps the most impactful components in music training upon those with dyslexia according to research (Overy, 2003). Many theories suppose that music can help improve dyslexic individuals’ language abilities because rhythm and timing are key skills developed in music, and as such could be transferred to these deficits in language abilities (Chiappe et al., 2002). Impairments in rhythmic timing indicate difficulties with speech perception, cognition, and motor control. Dyslexics have demonstrated that they have motor timing impairments, which when paired with automatization problems (tasks that should require little effort after much practice), reveal themselves in poor balance, messy handwriting, and weak phonological representations (Overy, 2003). These motor impairments also appear in assessments of finger tapping to music and rapid articulation of sounds (Overy, 2003).
Overy (2003) conducted a series of experiments to determine if timing and rhythm deficits could be a contributing factor to language and reading impairments in dyslexic boys. Overall, results showed that phonological and spelling skills were severely improved, indicating that timing and rhythm inherent in music training may improve language skills. However, reading skills were not improved in any of the studies. Such results indicate that improved phonological abilities may not necessarily improve reading skills, as previously assumed. The author suggests that if long-term or intense music training were performed, reading abilities could possibly improve (Overy, 2003). Additionally, results indicated that dyslexic children showed difficulties with musical timing skills while showing no difficulties with pitch skills. They also scored lower in rapid auditory processing assessments. The author proposes that dyslexia may be related to strengths in the right hemisphere of the brain (pitch skills) and weaknesses in the left hemisphere (timing skills).
Another series of studies performed by Chiappe, Stringer, Siegel and Stanovich (2002) aimed to determine if timing deficits were present in reading-impaired adults. The study showed that reading-impaired adults performed lower than reading-level matched children on pseudoword reading and phonological sensitivity (Chiappe et al., 2002). In terms of the experimental timing tasks however, the disabled readers were equal in performance to the child normal readers. Additionally, the adults surpassed the performance of children in sensitivity on the auditory gap detection task and response latency. On all but one measure, reading impaired adult participants were not impaired on tasks requiring speeded processing. This study is of importance, because the results find no evidence of an impairment in auditory temporal processing amongst dyslexic adults (Chiappe et al., 2002). The authors note that most studies investigating this phenomena have used children as participants and not adults. They further state that timing impairments may be developmentally limited, so that adults no longer display these deficits (Chiappe et al., 2002). This study shows that reading-impaired adults may have less timing deficits than children, and therefore they may not benefit quite as much from music training.
Auditory Working Memory
Poor working memory is another strong deficit in those with dyslexia and a roadblock in literacy. A strong working memory is associated with reading efficiency and helps a reader to concentrate and hold onto information long enough to be able to apply it (Weiss, Granot, & Ahissar, 2014). In a study by Weiss et al. (2014), the auditory working memory (memory for melody, rhythm, and speech) assessments of adult dyslexic musicians proved to be poor across the board. The study indicates that even with extensive music training, auditory working memory remains a detriment to the reading abilities of adult dyslexics (Weiss et al., 2014).
The study was conducted to further understand the mysterious ability of dyslexic musicians to have outstanding sensitivity to sounds, despite poor phonological ability and timing difficulties. The study highlighted that reading difficulties found in the dyslexic musicians were similar to, but still less severe than, non-musician dyslexics (Weiss et al., 2014). However, the dyslexic musicians’ abilities in pitch and interval discrimination, speech perception tasks, and tapping were similar to the non-dyslexic musicians and more superior than the general public. Weiss discovered in their study that dyslexics with musical training still appear to have reading impairments, despite music improving their pitch, phonological, and rhythm abilities.
Current Training Methods
Tallal and Gaab (2006) sought to determine if music-based interventions could induce neuroplasticity in the brains of children with language-learning impairments (LLI), thereby improving dynamic auditory, phonological processing skills, and language abilities. The language training program, Fast for Word, was implemented in the study to train participants in rapid auditory sequencing and language incorporating acoustically modified speech (Tallal & Gaab, 2006). Fast for Word, showed significant improvements amongst LLI children in acoustic processing rates, as well as language comprehension and speech discrimination. They were compared with a control group of LLI children who received the language training portion but no auditory sequencing training. Previous studies have concentrated on spoken language skills, but Temple et al. (as cited in Tallal & Gaab, 2006) first evidenced notable improvements in reading and language abilities amongst children with dyslexia in the Fast For Word program. Dyslexic and normal-reading children received MRI scans both before and after the Fast for Word program. The study showed significant improvements in language and reading amongst dyslexic children. The control group exhibited no prominent change. Prior to the study, dyslexic subjects displayed no metabolic activity in the temporoparietal language regions of the brain when carrying out the letter-rhyming activation task, whereas the control group displayed heavy activity. After the program, MRI results showed that dyslexic readers had heightened metabolic activity in the left hemisphere region of the brain. This metabolic activity is commonly seen in normal-reading children (Tallal & Gaab, 2006).
Another two studies by Habib et al. (2016) analyzed the efficacy of the Cognitivo-Musical Training (CMT) program upon dyslexic children. The program seeks to improve temporal processing, rhythm abilities, cross-modal integration of different brain regions, and brain connectivity and circuits found in both language and music processes. It found significant improvements in auditory temporal processing amongst participants, as well as phonological awareness, auditory attention, repetition of pseudo-words, and reading abilities (Habib et al., 2016). It is noteworthy that these improvements continued after an untrained period of 6 weeks.
References
Bishop, L. P., Welch, G., Huss, M., Thomson, J. M., & Goswami, U. (2014). Auditory temporal
processing skills in musicians with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 20(3), 261–279. Retrieved from
https://doi-org.antioch.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/dys.1479
Chiappe, P., Stringer, R., Siegel, L. S., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002). Why the timing deficit
hypothesis does not explain reading disability in adults. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 15(1–2), 73–107. Retrieved from
https://doi-org.antioch.idm.oclc.org/10.1023/A:1013868304361
Flaugnacco, E., Lopez, L., Terribili, C., Montico, M., Zoia, S., & Schön, D. (2015). Music
training increases phonological awareness and reading skills in developmental dyslexia: A randomized control trial. PLOS ONE, 10(9). Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.antioch.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2016-03408-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Forgeard, M., Schlaug, G., Norton, A., Rosam, C., Iyengar, U., & Winner, E. (2008). The
relation between music and phonological processing in normal-reading children and
children with dyslexia. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25(4), 383–390.
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Habib, M., Lardy, C., Desiles, T., Commeiras, C., Chobert, J., & Besson, M. (2016). Music and
dyslexia: A new musical training method to improve reading and related disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.antioch.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2016-18871-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site
LD Online (2019). Dyslexia: What Brain Research Reveals About Reading. Retrieved from
http://www.ldonline.org/article/10784/
Mayo Clinic (2017). Dyslexia. Retrieved from
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dyslexia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353552
Overy, K. (2003). Dyslexia and Music: From timing deficits to musical intervention. New York
Academy of Sciences, 999, 497-505. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.antioch.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2004-00071-038&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Tallal, P. & Gaab, N. (2006). Dynamic auditory processing, musical experience and language
development. Trends in Neurosciences, 29(7), 382–390. Retrieved from https://doi-org.antioch.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.tins.2006.06.003
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Weiss, A. H., Granot, R. Y., & Ahissar, M. (2014). The enigma of dyslexic musicians.
Neuropsychologia, 54, 28–40. Retrieved from
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